M2L3: Some important terms related to Biotechnology

Bio-concentration	Bioconcentration is the intake and retention of a non-biodegradable substance in an organism entirely by respiration from water in aquatic ecosystems or from air in terrestrial ecosystems. In this case, the chemical concentration in the tissues of aquatic organism exceeds that in water as a result of exposure to a waterborne chemical. Species that are most sensitive and/or responsive to this phenomenon are generally referred to as bioindicator species or sentinel species
Bio-accumulation	Bioaccumulation is defined as the net accumulation of a contaminant in or on an organism from all sources including water, air, and diet. The body is unable to lose the contaminant through solid or liquid waste or excreta.
Bio-magnification or Bio-amplification	This refers to an increase in the concentration of a substance as you move up the food chain. This often occurs because the pollutant is persistent, meaning that it cannot be, or is very slowly, broken down by natural processes.

Bio-synthesis	Biosynthesis is a multi-step, enzyme-catalyzed process where substrates are converted into more complex products in living organisms. In biosynthesis, simple compounds are modified, converted into other compounds, or joined together to form macromolecules.
Bio-catalysts	Biocatalysts refers to the use of living substances to speed up (or catalyze) chemical reactions. In biocatalytic processes, natural catalysts, such as enzymes and proteins perform chemical transformations on organic compounds.
Bio-mining/ Bio-recovery	Biomining is the extraction of specific metals from their ores or recovered from waste through biological means, usually bacterial microorganisms. One such bacteria is Shewanella oneidensis, which is notable for its ability to reduce metal ions and live in environments with or without oxygen. Biomining is done in two steps, bio-leaching and then bio-oxidation. Both of them are oxidation process. The metals commonly extracted using this process include gold, silver, zinc, copper, lead, arsenic, antimony, nickel, molybdenum cobalt, and uranium. Japan is using this to produce gold metals out of e-waste for 2022 Olympic games.
Bio-leaching	Bioleaching, or microbial ore leaching, is a process used to extract common metals or base metals (metals that are not considered precious, such as copper, tin, or zinc) from low-grade ores and mineral concentrates. The bacteria feed on nutrients in the minerals, causing the metal to separate from its ore. Pls note that, the metal is still solubilized in an aqueous phase. It is later on recovered from the solution.
Bio-oxidation or Bio-beneficiation	Microbial oxidation or bio-oxidation refers to the process caused by microbes where the valuable metal remains (but becomes enriched) in the solid phase. Bio-oxidation leaves the metal values in the solid phase and the solution may be discarded.

Bio-refinery	It is a facility that integrates biomass conversion processes and equipment to produce Bio-fuels, electricity (for e.g. Microbial fuel cell), and value-added chemicals (for e.g. Bio-plastics, Bio-fibers, Bio-solvents etc.) from biomass. Biorefinery is analogous to today's petroleum refinery, which produces multiple fuels and products from petroleum.
Bio-conversion or Bio-transformation	It refers to the conversion of organic materials, such as plant or animal waste, into usable products or energy sources by biological processes or agents or microorganisms. For e.g. conversion of biomass into ethanol, methanol, or methane in a biogas plant.
Bio-char	It is a compound that is formed after vegetation catches fire. It can also be made artificially from biomass via pyrolysis. The process creates a fine-grained, highly porous charcoal that helps soils retain nutrients and water. Thus, it can be used as an enhancer in severely depleted agricultural soils to increase plant growth rates.
Bio-reactor or Bio-slurry	An apparatus in which a biological reaction or process is carried out, especially on an industrial scale.
Bio-gasification	It is a process of converting biomass to biogas, which can then be used as a fuel using aerobic microorganisms. When anaerobic microorganisms are used, it is referred to as Bio-methanation
Bio-degradation	Biodegradation is defined as any physical or chemical change in a material caused by biological activity. It has been found that certain microorganisms such as bacteria, fungi and actinomycetes are involved in the degradation of both natural and synthetic plastics. One such bacteria recently in the news is Ideonella Sakiensis. It was discovered by Japanese scientists while researching on how to degrade plastics at landfill site in Pakistan.

Bio-enrichment or Bio-fortification	It refers to a process by which the nutritional quality of food crops is improved. For e.g. golden rice
Bio-fertilizers or Bio-inoculants	They are plant growth promoting (PGP) microbes. When applied to seeds, plant surfaces, or soil, they promote growth by increasing the supply or availability of primary nutrients to the host plant. For e.g. Rhizobium
Bio-films	Microorganisms attach to surfaces and develop biofilms. These biofilms can contain many different types of microorganism, e.g. bacteria, archaea, protozoa, fungi and algae; each group performs specialized metabolic functions. Recent studies have shown that biofilms of bacteria, can develop resistance against certain kinds of anti-microbial drugs. Disabling biofilm resistance may enhance the ability of existing antibiotics to clear infections Not all biofilms are harmful. One common example of a biofilm are dental plaques which is basically a slimy buildup of bacteria on the surfaces of teeth. Many biofilms are found to play an important role in the ecology of the earth and the sustainability of life in general. They are now engineered for bioremediation of contaminated soils and in cleaning up oil and gasoline spills. Bio-filters used for wastewater treatment also work on the same principle. Biofilms are also used to make biosensors that can detect the presence of chemicals.
Bio-mimetics	Biomimetic refers to human-made processes, substances, devices, or systems that imitate nature. The branch of engineering that designs and builds biomimetic apparatus is known as biomimicry (since they mimic biological systems) For e.g. the nose of the bullet train is pointed to reduce drag. This resembles the design of falcon bird.

Difference between phytoremediation, bioremediation and rhizoremediation Bio-remediation or Bio-treatment refers to the use of microorganisms to consume and break down environmental pollutants, in order to clean a polluted site. Recently, as a part of Swachchh Bharat Abhiyan, the Indian Railways have used a bacteria Psychrophila Antarctica (also known as inoculum) in bio-toilets to reduce open defecation. When the same process of cleaning up the polluted site is done using plants, it is referred to as phytoremediation. If this happens in the region surrounding the roots of the plant, it is referred to as rhizoremediation. (Rhizo means roots, for e.g. Anaerobic-Myco-rrhizae is an anaerobic fungus that resides in the roots of the plant. Similarly, we have a bacteria rhizo-bium, that also resides in the roots of leguminous plants) For e.g. it has been found that the root fibers of the plant water hyacinth, can uptake certain heavy metals that are mixed in polluted water. This process is called as Biosorption in which the contaminants are bind and concentrated by the microorganism onto its cellular structure. In India, while this plant comes under the category of invasive species, it also has the potential to be used as a phytoremediation agent to clean up certain contaminants from polluted rivers. Can we use this to clean up river Ganges under Clean Ganga Mission?

Bioremediation technologies to clean up waste water In many cases, when the site is polluted, it is found that the pollutants get degraded naturally by indigenous microorganisms. This phenomenon is known as Bio-attenuation.  However, this can’t happen if the pollutants are complex or the site lacks appropriate microorganisms to degrade them. When non-native cultured microorganisms are added to biodegrade specific soil and groundwater contaminants, it is referred to as Bio-augmentation. In contrast, when the native microbial population is available and is capable of doing the same job, it is wise to stimulate these indigenous microbes to grow fast and get the job done as quickly as possible. In this case scenario, when the native microbes are stimulated, the technique is referred to as Bio-stimulation. Both bioaugmentation and bio-stimulation are used for treatment of sewage, commonly referred to as activated sludge method.

Mechanical Biological Treatment. It is a way of sorting and treating waste, first mechanically breaking it into materials that can and cannot be recycled. Later the waste that can be recycled is then broken down biologically, often through composting, while the rest is usually sent to landfill sites. Advanced waste treatment. The term implies treatment beyond secondary treatment, and it involves removal of non-carbonaceous materials such as excess phosphorus and nitrogen. Advanced treatment is most effective after the organic matter has been removed.

Bioremediation technologies to clean up underground aquifers/ ground water Bio-sparging is a technique in which air is injected beneath the ground-water table. By way of this injection, the water is enriched with oxygen and the biological break down through existing soil microorganisms is stimulated. When the air is injected just above the ground water table (vadose zone), this process will be called as Bioventing. (Vadose zone extends from the top of the ground surface to the water table)